Reducing sensor foreign body response via high surface area metal structures

ABSTRACT

Embodiments of the invention provide optimized sputtered metallic surfaces adapted for use with implantable medical devices as well as methods for making and using such polymeric surfaces. These sputtered metallic surfaces have features that function to inhibit or avoid an inflammatory immune response generated by implantable medical devices. Typical embodiments of the invention include an implantable glucose sensor used in the management of diabetes having a sputtered metallic surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 121 of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/654,353, filed Oct. 16, 2019, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to methods and materials useful for implantable medical devices, such as glucose sensors used in the management of diabetes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Patient responses to implanted foreign materials present challenges in the design of medical devices. These patient responses are typically characterized by the infiltration of inflammatory cells such as macrophages and their chronic activation, which can lead to the formation of a fibrous capsule at the site of implantation. This capsule typically functions to isolate the foreign body from the host immune system, and can be detrimental to the function of many medical devices including for example implanted biosensors as well as cardiovascular and orthopedic implants etc. The dense, collagen-rich tissue of a capsule may prevent diffusion of small molecules such as glucose to and from the implanted device. While efforts to reduce the immune response to implanted biomaterials have been somewhat successful, the conventional approaches have not been sufficient in addressing the effects of foreign body responses (FBR) on implanted device function.

The quantitative determination of analytes in humans and mammals is of great importance in the diagnosis and maintenance of a number of pathological conditions. For this reason, implantable analyte sensors are used to monitor a wide variety of compounds including in vivo analytes. The determination of glucose concentrations in body fluids is of particular importance to diabetic individuals, individuals who must frequently check glucose levels in their body fluids to regulate the glucose intake in their diets. The results of such tests can be crucial in determining what, if any, insulin and/or other medication need to be administered. Unfortunately, the mammalian host response to implanted glucose sensors can inhibit the diffusion of glucose to and from the implanted glucose sensor, a phenomena which can compromise the accuracy of sensor readings over time.

Thus, there is a need in the art for implantable devices such as glucose sensors that can avoid or minimize host immune responses. Embodiments of the invention disclosed herein meet this as well as other needs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention disclosed herein provides medical devices having exterior surface architectures designed to contact an in vivo environment in order to provide the devices with enhanced functional and/or material properties, for example an ability to avoid or inhibit tissue inflammatory responses when implanted in vivo. The instant disclosure further provides methods for making and using such devices. As discussed in detail below, typical embodiments of the invention relate to the use of a sensor that measures a concentration of an aqueous analyte of interest or a substance indicative of the concentration or presence of the analyte in vivo. In illustrative embodiments, the sensor is used for continuous glucose monitoring in diabetic patients.

Glucose sensor sensitivity loss over time is believed to stem directly from the host immune response to the foreign sensor implant. In this context, the invention disclosed herein involves the generation of nano-structured surfaces that have been discovered to reduce foreign body responses. In working embodiments of the invention, high pressure metal sputtering was utilized to create a metal coating with increased nano-structuring and roughness. In in vivo pig studies, these nano-structured surfaces were discovered to be capable of modulating glucose foreign body associated sensor sensitivity loss that occurs from in vivo implantation of such sensors. Without being bound by a specific theory or mechanism of action, this discovery is thought to stem from modulating macrophage phenotypes which can bias the macrophage response and the cellular foreign body response towards inflammatory or regenerative phenotypes.

The invention disclosed herein addresses significant problems in this technology because glucose sensor sensitivity loss caused by foreign body response is one of the leading factors in limiting sensor longevity. In this context, the nano-structured coatings and surfaces (i.e. body/tissue contacting materials) that are disclosed herein allow medical devices such as glucose sensors to be worn for longer periods of time without the patient experiencing sensitivity loss. With lessened sensitivity loss, a user does not need to replace a glucose sensor as often and can be comfortable knowing the sensor is performing accurately. In addition, by addressing the sensor sensitivity loss issue, sensor performance is more predictable over the lifetime of sensor wear, thereby enabling calibration-free continuous glucose monitoring.

The invention disclosed herein has a number of embodiments. One embodiment of the invention is a medical device comprising a composition having an architecture that is adapted to contact immune cells such as macrophages present in an in vivo environment (e.g. an interstitial space). As discussed in detail below, compositions disposed on the surface the devices disclosed herein (i.e. surfaces that contact an in vivo environment) are designed to have nanostructured architectures that have been discovered to decrease foreign body responses observed in in vivo environments (e.g. by reducing macrophage inflammatory phenotypes and/or macrophage adhesion to the foreign body). Typically, the composition comprises an architecture that includes pillars, and/or is formed to comprise nanostructures with dimensions in a range from 1 nm-1000 nm and/or max peak/valley heights in a range of 1 nm-1000 nm. In certain embodiments of the invention, this composition in the medical device comprises as at least one structured layer selected from a patterned layer, a roughened layer, a non-uniform layer, a pillared layer and a layer including voids.

In illustrative embodiments of the medical devices disclosed herein, the surface composition comprises an architecture that includes gold pillars. In such embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface having these architectures, RAW264.7 macrophage phenotypes are modulated in a manner that inhibits their differentiation into an inflammatory (M1) phenotype, and/or modulated in a manner that facilitates their differentiation into an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype. In typical embodiments of the invention the medical device is a glucose sensor that comprises a base layer, a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode disposed on the base layer, an analyte sensing layer disposed over the working electrode, and an analyte modulating layer disposed over the analyte sensing layer, wherein the analyte modulating layer modulates the diffusion of glucose therethrough.

In working embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface comprising a sputtered gold composition, glucose sensors are observed to exhibit a slowed decline/loss in sensor signal over time (e.g. at least 10% less decline/loss) as compared to a control glucose sensor that is identical to said glucose sensor except that said control glucose sensor comprises a sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment formed from a polyimide composition. In certain embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface comprising the sputtered metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophages produce less TNF-α (e.g. at least 10% less) than an amount of TNF-α produced in response to RAW264.7 macrophages exposed to a control device that is identical to said device except that said control device comprises a sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment formed from a polyimide composition.

Other embodiments of the invention involve methods of making an electrochemical analyte sensor. Typically these methods comprise providing a base layer, forming a conductive layer over the base layer (e.g. including a working electrode), forming an analyte sensing layer over the conductive layer, wherein the analyte sensing layer includes a composition that can alter the electrical current at the working electrode in the conductive layer in the presence of an analyte, forming an analyte modulating layer over the analyte sensing layer; and then forming a surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment, the surface comprising a composition. In typical embodiments, the surface composition is deposited on a surface of the electrochemical analyte sensor that is positioned to contact an in vivo environment using a wet etching process, an electroplating process, an embossing process, a physical vapor deposition (PVD) process or the like. Typically, the surface composition comprises gold and/or an architecture comprising pillars, and/or is formed to comprise nanostructures with dimensions in a range from 1 nm-1000 nm and max peak/valley heights in a range of 1 nm-1000 nm, such that when exposed to the surface comprising the composition, RAW264.7 macrophages are influenced in a manner that inhibits their differentiation into an inflammatory (M1) phenotype, and/or influenced in a manner that facilitates their differentiation into an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype.

Other embodiments of the invention include methods of sensing an analyte within the body of a mammal. Typically, these methods comprise implanting an electrochemical analyte sensor as disclosed herein in to the mammal; sensing an alteration in current at the working electrode in the presence of the analyte; and then correlating the alteration in current with the presence of the analyte, so that the analyte is sensed.

Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description. It is to be understood, however, that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating some embodiments of the present invention are given by way of illustration and not limitation. Many changes and modifications within the scope of the present invention may be made without departing from the spirit thereof, and the invention includes all such modifications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-G show data obtained from embodiments of the invention disclosed herein. FIG. 1A shows a cartoon schematic of a macrophage coming into contact with a nano structured material disclosed herein (top left panel), a photograph of a nano structured material disclosed herein (top right panel), and a graph of data obtained with pigs comparing conventional glucose sensor longevity with the (improved) longevity of glucose sensors having a nano structured material disclosed herein (bottom panel). FIG. 1B shows photographs of macrophage adhesion to plastic layers, polyimide layers, thin gold layers and thick gold layers in the absence of LPS (top panels) and the presence of LPS (bottom panels). FIG. 1C shows graphed data from a neutral red assay study of macrophage adhesion on various surfaces. This data shows that RAW264.7 macrophage adhesion on textured gold surfaces trends lower as compared to RAW264.7 macrophage adhesion on polyimide and plastic materials, that treating these macrophages with LPS activates/stimulates macrophages towards a pro-inflammatory phenotype, more akin to the inflammatory environment surrounding sensor insertion/foreign body response, and that there are no major differences in adhered macrophages post-LPS treatment. FIG. 1D shows graphed data from a study of the production of the pro-inflammatory marker MIP-1α in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the absence of LPS. FIG. 1E shows graphed data from a study of the production of the pro-inflammatory marker MCP-1 in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the absence of LPS. FIG. 1F shows graphed data from a study of the production of the pro-inflammatory marker TNF-α in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the absence of LPS (and that TNF-α production is significantly lower in increased gold texturing (Gold Thick) as compared to polyimide). FIG. 1G shows graphed data from a study of the evaluation of activated macrophages via the production of the pro-inflammatory marker TNF-α in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the presence of LPS (and that MIP-1α and MCP-1 levels did not increase upon LPS activation, and therefore results were comparable to results without activation, and also that LPS activated macrophages adhered to textured gold produce less TNF-α than LPS activated macrophages adhered polyimide).

FIGS. 2A-2B provide schematics showing a conventional (PRIOR ART) sensor design comprising an amperometric analyte sensor formed from a plurality of planar layered elements which include albumin protein layer and an adhesion promoter layer (FIG. 2AA); and a schematic showing differences between such conventional multilayer sensor stacks and sensor stacks having a high density amine layer (FIG. 2AB).

FIG. 3 provides a perspective view illustrating a subcutaneous sensor insertion set, a telemetered characteristic monitor transmitter device, and a data receiving device embodying features of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Unless otherwise defined, all terms of art, notations, and other scientific terms or terminology used herein are intended to have the meanings commonly understood by those of skill in the art to which this invention pertains. In some cases, terms with commonly understood meanings may be defined herein for clarity and/or for ready reference, and the inclusion of such definitions herein should not necessarily be construed to represent a substantial difference over what is generally understood in the art. Many of the techniques and procedures described or referenced herein are well understood and commonly employed using conventional methodology by those skilled in the art. As appropriate, procedures involving the use of commercially available kits and reagents are generally carried out in accordance with manufacturer defined protocols and/or parameters unless otherwise noted. A number of terms are defined below.

All numbers recited in the specification and associated claims that refer to values that can be numerically characterized with a value other than a whole number (e.g. the diameter of a circular disc) are understood to be modified by the term “about”. Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range, is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges, and are also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the invention. Furthermore, all publications mentioned herein are incorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited. Publications cited herein are cited for their disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing here is to be construed as an admission that the inventors are not entitled to antedate the publications by virtue of an earlier priority date or prior date of invention. Further the actual publication dates may be different from those shown and require independent verification.

The term “analyte” as used herein is a broad term and is used in its ordinary sense, including, without limitation, to refer to a substance or chemical constituent in a fluid such as a biological fluid (for example, blood, interstitial fluid, cerebral spinal fluid, lymph fluid or urine) that can be analyzed. Analytes can include naturally occurring substances, artificial substances, metabolites, and/or reaction products. In common embodiments, the analyte is glucose. However, embodiments of the invention can be used with sensors designed for detecting a wide variety other analytes. Illustrative analytes include but are not limited to, lactate as well as salts, sugars, proteins fats, vitamins and hormones that naturally occur in vivo (e.g. in blood or interstitial fluids). The analyte can be naturally present in the biological fluid or endogenous; for example, a metabolic product, a hormone, an antigen, an antibody, and the like. Alternatively, the analyte can be introduced into the body or exogenous, for example, a contrast agent for imaging, a radioisotope, a chemical agent, a fluorocarbon-based synthetic blood, or a drug or pharmaceutical composition, including but not limited to insulin. The metabolic products of drugs and pharmaceutical compositions are also contemplated analytes.

The term “sensor” for example in “analyte sensor,” is used in its ordinary sense, including, without limitation, means used to detect a compound such as an analyte. A “sensor system” includes, for example, elements, structures and architectures (e.g. specific 3-dimensional constellations of elements) designed to facilitate sensor use and function. Sensor systems can include, for example, compositions such as those having selected material properties, as well as electronic components such as elements and devices used in signal detection and analysis (e.g. current detectors, monitors, processors and the like).

Embodiments of the invention disclosed herein provide sensors of the type used, for example, in subcutaneous or transcutaneous monitoring of blood glucose levels in a diabetic patient. A variety of implantable, electrochemical biosensors have been developed for the treatment of diabetes and other life-threatening diseases. Many existing sensor designs use some form of immobilized enzyme to achieve their bio-specificity. Embodiments of the invention described herein can be adapted and implemented with a wide variety of known electrochemical sensors, including for example, U.S. Patent Application No. 20050115832, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,001,067, 6,702,857, 6,212,416, 6,119,028, 6,400,974, 6,595,919, 6,141,573, 6,122,536, 6,512,939 5,605,152, 4,431,004, 4,703,756, 6,514,718, 5,985,129, 5,390,691, 5,391, 250, 5,482,473, 5,299,571, 5,568,806, 5,494,562, 6,120,676, 6,542,765, 7,033,336 as well as PCT International Publication Numbers WO 01/58348, WO 04/021877, WO 03/034902, WO 03/035117, WO 03/035891, WO 03/023388, WO 03/022128, WO 03/022352, WO 03/023708, WO 03/036255, WO03/036310 WO 08/042,625, and WO 03/074107, and European Patent Application EP 1153571, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Illustrative Embodiments of the Invention and Associated Characteristics

Embodiments of the invention include medical devices (e.g. electrochemical glucose sensors) designed to include surface compositions adapted to contact an in vivo environment, for example a surface composition having nanostructures with dimensions in a range from 1 nm-1000 nm and max peak/valley heights in a range from 1 nm-1000 nm. In such embodiments, when exposed to the surface comprising the composition having such architectures, RAW264.7 macrophages are influenced in a manner that inhibits their differentiation into an inflammatory (M1) phenotype, and/or influenced in a manner that facilitates their differentiation into an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype. In some embodiments of the invention, the composition comprises as at least one structured layer selected from a patterned layer, a roughened layer, a non-uniform layer, and a pillared layer and/or a layer including voids. In the working embodiments of the invention that are disclosed herein, the composition comprises sputtered gold pillars.

Embodiments of the invention disclosed herein provide medical devices designed to include an external surface architecture that provides the devices with enhanced functional and/or material properties, for example an ability to avoid or inhibit tissue inflammatory responses when implanted in vivo. The disclosure further provides methods for making and using such devices. In some embodiments, the implantable device is a subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravascular or transdermal device. As discussed in detail below, some embodiments of the invention relate to the use of a sensor device that is implanted to measure a concentration of an aqueous analyte of interest or a substance indicative of the concentration or presence of the analyte in vivo. Typically, the sensor can be used for continuous glucose monitoring.

A variety of materials can be used to form the surface compositions disclosed herein including different metals as well as polymeric materials conventionally used with implantable devices (see, e.g. Biomedical and Dental Applications of Polymers by Charles Gebelein, F. Koblitz, 1991). One working embodiment of the invention is a glucose sensor comprising a surface formed from a metallic composition made by physical vapor deposition (PVD) so as to be adapted/modified to contact in vivo environments comprising macrophages. As is known in the art, classically activated macrophages (M1) are proinflammatory effectors, while alternatively activated macrophages (M2) exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. In this working embodiment, the selected constellation of surface elements of the metallic compositions made by physical vapor deposition (PVD) functions so that, when exposed to the surface comprising the metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophages are influenced to differentiate into an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype and/or inhibited from differentiating into an inflammatory (M1) phenotype (e.g. as shown by decreases in TNF-α expression, or by undergoing fewer morphological changes and elongations as compared RAW264.7 macrophage cells contacting a control surface not having the constellation of elements disclosed herein). This is significant because macrophages, especially their activation state, are closely related to the progression of the inflammatory response that can be detrimental to the function of implanted devices. (see, e.g. Anderson Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2001. 31:81-110; Li et al., Hum Exp Toxicol. 2017 Jan. 1:960327117714039. doi: 10.1177/0960327117714039. [Epub ahead of print]; Kianoush et al., J Biomed Mater Res A. 2017 September;105(9):2499-2509. doi: 10.1002/jbm.a.36107. Epub 2017 Jun. 6; and Chen et al., Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2015 November;31(8):781-9. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.2761. Epub 2015 Nov. 20). Methods and materials that can be adapted for use with the invention are disclosed in GLUCOSE SENSOR ELECTRODE DESIGN, Ser. No. 15/892,162, filed Feb. 8, 2018, and METHODS FOR CONTROLLING PHYSICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION METAL FILM ADHESION TO SUBSTRATES AND SURFACES, Ser. No. 15/892,172, Filed: Feb. 8, 2018, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

As noted above, certain embodiments of the invention comprise medical devices having metallic compositions (made by, for example, by a physical vapor deposition process or the like) that show quantitative effects on macrophages (e.g. macrophage phenotype). For example, in some embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface comprising the metallic compositions of the invention disclosed herein, RAW264.7 macrophages exhibit a decrease in TNF-α polypeptide expression of at least 10% as compared that exhibited by macrophages exposed to control polyimide surfaces not having a surface topography disclosed herein.

An illustrative embodiment of the invention is a medical device comprising a surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment (e.g. in an interstitial space), the surface comprising a sputtered metallic composition adapted to contact an in vivo environment that is deposited on the sensor surface using physical vapor deposition (PVD) process. Typically, the sputtered metallic composition comprises an architecture that includes pillars and/or the metal gold. In such embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface comprising the sputtered metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophage phenotypes are modulated in a manner that inhibits their differentiation into an inflammatory (M1) phenotype, and/or modulated in a manner that facilitates their differentiation into an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype. In typical embodiments of the invention the medical device is a glucose sensor that comprises a base layer, a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode disposed on the base layer, an analyte sensing layer disposed over the working electrode, and an analyte modulating layer disposed over the analyte sensing layer, wherein the analyte modulating layer modulates the diffusion of glucose therethrough.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the sputtered metallic composition of the medical device comprises as at least one structured layer selected from a patterned layer, a roughened layer, a non-uniform layer, and a layer including voids. Typically, the sputtered metallic composition comprises gold, and/or the sputtered metallic composition comprises an architecture that includes pillars. In some embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface comprising the sputtered metallic composition, glucose sensors are observed to exhibit a slowed decline/loss in sensor signal over time as compared to a control glucose sensor that is identical to said glucose sensor except that said control glucose sensor comprises a sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment formed from a polyimide composition. In certain embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface comprising the sputtered metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophages produce less TNF-α (e.g. at least 10% less) than an amount of TNF-α produced in response to RAW264.7 macrophages exposed to a control device that is identical to said device except that said control device comprises a sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment formed from a polyimide composition.

Working embodiments of the invention disclosed herein include metallic compositions made by physical vapor deposition (PVD) to have pillared surface characteristics that are useful with implantable medical devices. While the sputtered metallic compositions of the invention can be adapted for use with a wide variety of such devices, the illustrative embodiments focused on in this disclosure are analyte sensors, typically electrochemical sensors that measure a concentration of an analyte of interest or a substance indicative of the concentration or presence of the analyte in fluid (e.g. glucose). However, the sputtered metallic composition surfaces disclosed herein can be used in a wide variety of other medical devices, including devices implanted long term (e.g. devices implanted more than one month) such as orthopedics device, dental implants, stents, pacemakers, catheters and the like as well as devices implanted short term (e.g. devices implanted less than one month) such as catheters, CGM sensors, tubing for infusion sets and the like.

In typical embodiments of the invention, the implantable device comprising a metallic composition that contacts an in vivo tissue is a glucose sensor. In certain embodiments, the glucose sensor comprises a base layer, a working electrode, a reference electrode, and a counter electrode disposed on the base layer, an analyte sensing layer disposed over the working electrode, wherein the analyte sensing layer comprises glucose oxidase, and an analyte modulating layer disposed over the analyte sensing layer, wherein the analyte modulating layer modulates the diffusion of glucose therethrough. Optionally, the glucose sensor further comprises at least one of an interference rejection layer disposed over the working electrode, an adhesion promoting layer disposed between the analyte sensing layer and the analyte modulating layer, a protein layer disposed on the analyte sensing layer; or a cover layer disposed over the analyte modulating layer.

In typical glucose sensor embodiments of the invention, electrochemical glucose sensors are operatively coupled to a sensor input capable of receiving signals from the electrochemical sensor; and a processor coupled to the sensor input, wherein the processor is capable of characterizing one or more signals received from the electrochemical sensor. In certain embodiments of the invention, the electrical conduit of the electrode is coupled to a potentiostat. Optionally, a pulsed voltage is used to obtain a signal from an electrode. In certain embodiments of the invention, the processor is capable of comparing a first signal received from a working electrode in response to a first working potential with a second signal received from a working electrode in response to a second working potential. Optionally, the electrode is coupled to a processor adapted to convert data obtained from observing fluctuations in electrical current from a first format into a second format. Such embodiments include, for example, processors designed to convert a sensor current Input Signal (e.g. ISIG measured in nA) to a blood glucose concentration.

In embodiments of the invention, the sensors comprise another biocompatible polymer region adapted to be implanted in vivo and directly contact the in vivo environment. In embodiments of the invention, the biocompatible region can comprise any polymer surface that contacts an in vivo tissue. In this way, sensors used in the systems of the invention can be used to sense a wide variety of analytes in different aqueous environments. In some embodiments, the sensor comprises a discreet probe that pierces an in vivo environment. In some embodiments of the invention, the electrode is coupled to a piercing member (e.g. a needle) adapted to be implanted in vivo. While sensor embodiments of the invention can comprise one or two piercing members, optionally such sensor apparatuses can include 3 or 4 or 5 or more piercing members that are coupled to and extend from a base element and are operatively coupled to 3 or 4 or 5 or more electrochemical sensors (e.g. microneedle arrays, embodiments of which are disclosed for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,291,497 and 7,027,478, and U.S. patent Application No. 20080015494, the contents of which are incorporated by reference).

Embodiments of the invention include analyte sensor apparatus designed to utilize the sputtered metallic surfaces disclosed herein. Such apparatuses typically include a base on which electrically conductive members are disposed and configured to form a working electrode. In some embodiments of the invention, an array of electrically conductive members is coupled to a common electrical conduit (e.g. so that the conductive members of the array are not separately wired, and are instead electrically linked as a group). Optionally, the electrical conduit is coupled to a power source adapted to sense fluctuations in electrical current of the array of the working electrode. Typically, the apparatus includes a reference electrode; and a counter electrode. Optionally one or more of these electrodes also comprises a plurality of electrically conductive members disposed on the base in an array. In some embodiments, each of the electrically conductive members of the electrode (e.g. the counter electrode) comprises an electroactive surface adapted to sense fluctuations in electrical current at the electroactive surface; and the group of electrically conductive members are coupled to a power source (e.g. a potentiostat or the like).

In some embodiments of the invention, the apparatus comprises a plurality of working electrodes, counter electrodes and reference electrodes clustered together in units consisting essentially of one working electrode, one counter electrode and one reference electrode; and the clustered units are longitudinally distributed on the base layer in a repeating pattern of units. In some sensor embodiments, the distributed electrodes are organized/disposed within a flex-circuit assembly (i.e. a circuitry assembly that utilizes flexible rather than rigid materials). Such flex-circuit assembly embodiments provide an interconnected assembly of elements (e.g. electrodes, electrical conduits, contact pads and the like) configured to facilitate wearer comfort (for example by reducing pad stiffness and wearer discomfort).

In some embodiments of the invention, an analyte sensing layer is disposed over electrically conductive members, and includes an agent that is selected for its ability to detectably alter the electrical current at the working electrode in the presence of an analyte. In the working embodiments of the invention that are disclosed herein, the agent is glucose oxidase, a protein that undergoes a chemical reaction in the presence of glucose that results in an alteration in the electrical current at the working electrode. These working embodiments further include an analyte modulating layer disposed over the analyte sensing layer, wherein the analyte modulating layer modulates the diffusion of glucose as it migrates from an in vivo environment to the analyte sensing layer. In certain embodiments of the invention, the analyte modulating layer comprises a hydrophilic comb-copolymer having a central chain and a plurality of side chains coupled to the central chain, wherein at least one side chain comprises a silicone moiety. In certain embodiments of the invention, the analyte modulating layer comprises a blended mixture of: a linear polyurethane/polyurea polymer, and a branched acrylate polymer; and the linear polyurethane/polyurea polymer and the branched acrylate polymer are blended at a ratio of between 1:1 and 1:20 (e.g. 1:2) by weight %. In working embodiments of the present invention, the signal strength and O₂ response of the microarray sensor electrode can be increased with the use of a 2× permselective GLM (glucose limiting membrane). Typically, this analyte modulating layer composition comprises a first polymer formed from a mixture comprising a diisocyanate; at least one hydrophilic diol or hydrophilic diamine; and a siloxane; that is blended with a second polymer formed from a mixture comprising: a 2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate; a methyl methacrylate; a polydimethyl siloxane monomethacryloxypropyl; a poly(ethylene oxide) methyl ether methacrylate; and a 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate. Additional material layers can be included in such apparatuses. For example, in some embodiments of the invention, the apparatus comprises an adhesion promoting layer disposed between the analyte sensing layer and the analyte modulating layer.

Embodiments of the invention also include methods of making an electrochemical analyte sensor. Typically these method comprise providing a base layer, forming a conductive layer over the base layer (e.g. including a working electrode), forming an analyte sensing layer over the conductive layer, wherein the analyte sensing layer includes a composition that can alter the electrical current at the working electrode in the conductive layer in the presence of an analyte, forming an analyte modulating layer over the analyte sensing layer; and then forming a surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment, the surface comprising a sputtered metallic composition. In such embodiments, the sputtered metallic composition is deposited on a surface of the electrochemical analyte sensor that is positioned to contact an in vivo environment using physical vapor deposition (PVD) process. Typically, the sputtered metallic composition further comprises gold and/or an architecture comprising pillars.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the methods of making an electrochemical analyte sensor include placing a substrate for the sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment in a physical vapor deposition (PVD) chamber, setting a pressure of a gas in the chamber, and then depositing the sputtered metallic composition on the substrate using physical vapor deposition at the selected pressure. Typically, the sputtered metallic composition comprises as at least one structured layer selected from a patterned layer, a roughened layer, a non-uniform layer, and a layer including voids. In addition, the sputtered metallic composition can comprise a variety of metals including gold. In some embodiments of the invention, the sputtered metallic composition comprises a second layer on a first layer, the first layer between the second layer, the first layer is deposited at the pressure comprising a first pressure, and the second layer is deposited at the pressure comprising a second pressure lower than the first pressure. Optionally the physical vapor deposition at a pressure in a range of 2-250 millitorr. In typical embodiments of the invention, the sputtered metallic composition comprises nanostructures with dimensions in a range from 1 nm-1000 nm and max peak/valley heights in a range of 1 nm-1000 nm. In certain embodiments of the invention, the physical vapor deposition methodology ionizes the gas so as to form ionized gas particles; and accelerates the ionized gas particles onto a target comprising the sputtered metallic composition using an electric and/or magnetic field having a power in a range of 10 watts to 100 kilowatts.

In certain embodiments of the invention, the sputtered metallic composition is formed so that when exposed to the surface of an implantable device comprising the sputtered metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophage phenotypes are modulated in a manner that inhibits their differentiation into an inflammatory (M1) phenotype, and/or modulated in a manner that facilitates their differentiation into an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype. In some embodiments of the invention, when exposed to the surface comprising the sputtered metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophages produce less TNF-α than an amount of TNF-α produced by RAW264.7 macrophages in response to a control electrochemical analyte sensor that is identical to said electrochemical analyte sensor except that said control electrochemical analyte sensor comprises a sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment formed from a polyimide composition.

One sensor embodiment shown in FIG. 2A is a amperometric sensor 100 having a plurality of layered elements including a base layer 102 (e.g. one formed from a polymer disclosed herein), a conductive layer 104 (e.g. one comprising the plurality of electrically conductive members) which is disposed on and/or combined with the base layer 102. Typically, the conductive layer 104 comprises one or more electrodes. An analyte sensing layer 110 (typically comprising an enzyme such as glucose oxidase) can be disposed on one or more of the exposed electrodes of the conductive layer 104. A protein layer 116 can be disposed upon the analyte sensing layer 110. An analyte modulating layer 112 can be disposed above the analyte sensing layer 110 to regulate analyte (e.g. glucose) access with the analyte sensing layer 110. An adhesion promoter layer 114 is disposed between layers such as the analyte modulating layer 112 and the analyte sensing layer 110 as shown in FIG. 2A in order to facilitate their contact and/or adhesion. This embodiment also comprises a cover layer 106 such as a polymer surface coating disclosed herein can be disposed on portions of the sensor 100. Apertures 108 can be formed in one or more layers of such sensors. Amperometric glucose sensors having this type of design are disclosed, for example, in U.S. Patent Application Publication Nos. 20070227907, 20100025238, 20110319734 and 20110152654, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Yet another embodiment of the invention is a method of sensing an analyte within the body of a mammal. Typically, this method comprises implanting an analyte sensor comprising one or more anti-inflammatory sputtered metallic surfaces within the mammal (e.g. in the interstitial space of a diabetic individual), sensing an alteration in current at the working electrode in the presence of the analyte; and then correlating the alteration in current with the presence of the analyte, so that the analyte is sensed.

Embodiments of the invention also provide articles of manufacture and kits for observing a concentration of an analyte. In an illustrative embodiment, the kit includes a sensor comprising a sputtered metallic surface as discussed herein. In typical embodiments, the sensors are disposed in the kit within a sealed sterile dry package. Optionally the kit comprises an insertion device that facilitates insertion of the sensor. The kit and/or sensor set typically comprises a container, a label and an analyte sensor as described above. Suitable containers include, for example, an easy to open package made from a material such as a metal foil, bottles, vials, syringes, and test tubes. The containers may be formed from a variety of materials such as metals (e.g. foils) paper products, glass or plastic. The label on, or associated with, the container indicates that the sensor is used for assaying the analyte of choice. The kit and/or sensor set may include other materials desirable from a commercial and user standpoint, including buffers, diluents, filters, needles, syringes, and package inserts with instructions for use.

Specific aspects of embodiments of the invention are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Typical Elements, Configurations and Analyte Sensor Embodiments of the Invention A. Typical Elements Found in of Embodiments of the Invention

FIGS. 2 and 3 provide illustrations of various sensor and sensor system embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 2A illustrates a cross-section of a conventional sensor embodiment 100. The components of the sensor are typically characterized herein as layers in this layered electrochemical sensor stack because, for example, it allows for a facile characterization of conventional sensor structures such as those shown in FIG. 2A and their differences from the invention disclosed herein as shown in FIG. 2B (i.e. ones comprising a HDA layer 500). Artisans will understand, that in certain embodiments of the invention, the sensor constituents are combined such that multiple constituents form one or more heterogeneous layers. In this context, those of skill in the art understand that, while certain layers/components of conventional sensor embodiments are useful in the HDA sensors disclosed herein, the placement and composition of the layered constituents is very different in HDA sensor embodiments of the invention. Those of skill in this art will understand that certain embodiments if the invention include elements/layers that are found in conventional sensors while others are excluded, and/or new material layers/elements are included. For example, certain elements disclosed in FIG. 2A are also found in the invention disclosed herein (e.g. a base, analyte sensing layer, an analyte modulating layer etc.) while, as shown in FIG. 2B, other elements are not (e.g. separate HSA protein layers, layers comprising a siloxane adhesion promoter etc.). Similarly, embodiments of the invention include layers/elements having materials disposed in unique configurations that are not found in conventional sensors (e.g. high-density amine (HDA) polymer layers 500).

The embodiment shown in FIG. 2A includes a base layer 102 to support the sensor 100. The base layer 102 can be made of a material such as a metallic composition surface having the constellation of elements disclosed herein, a metal and/or a ceramic, which may be self-supporting or further supported by another material as is known in the art. Embodiments of the invention include a conductive layer 104 which is disposed on and/or combined with the base layer 102. Typically, the conductive layer 104 comprises one or more electrically conductive elements that function as electrodes. An operating sensor 100 typically includes a plurality of electrodes such as a working electrode, a counter electrode and a reference electrode. Other embodiments may also include a plurality of working and/or counter and/or reference electrodes and/or one or more electrodes that performs multiple functions, for example one that functions as both as a reference and a counter electrode.

As discussed in detail below, the base layer 102 and/or conductive layer 104 can be generated using many known techniques and materials. In certain embodiments of the invention, the electrical circuit of the sensor is defined by etching the disposed conductive layer 104 into a desired pattern of conductive paths. A typical electrical circuit for the sensor 100 comprises two or more adjacent conductive paths with regions at a proximal end to form contact pads and regions at a distal end to form sensor electrodes. An electrically insulating cover layer 106 such as a polymer coating can be disposed on portions of the sensor 100. Acceptable polymer coatings for use as the insulating protective cover layer 106 can include, but are not limited to polymers having the constellation of features disclosed herein, non-toxic biocompatible polymers such as silicone compounds, polyimides, biocompatible solder masks, epoxy acrylate copolymers, or the like. In the sensors of the present invention, one or more exposed regions or apertures 108 can be made through the cover layer 106 to open the conductive layer 104 to the external environment and to, for example, allow an analyte such as glucose to permeate the layers of the sensor and be sensed by the sensing elements. Apertures 108 can be formed by a number of techniques, including laser ablation, tape masking, chemical milling or etching or photolithographic development or the like. In certain embodiments of the invention, during manufacture, a secondary photoresist can also be applied to the protective layer 106 to define the regions of the protective layer to be removed to form the aperture(s) 108. The exposed electrodes and/or contact pads can also undergo secondary processing (e.g. through the apertures 108), such as additional plating processing, to prepare the surfaces and/or strengthen the conductive regions.

In the sensor configuration shown in FIG. 2A, an analyte sensing layer 110 is disposed on one or more of the exposed electrodes of the conductive layer 104. Typically, the analyte sensing layer 110 is an enzyme layer. Most typically, the analyte sensing layer 110 comprises an enzyme capable of producing and/or utilizing oxygen and/or hydrogen peroxide, for example the enzyme glucose oxidase. Optionally the enzyme in the analyte sensing layer is combined with a second carrier protein such as human serum albumin, bovine serum albumin or the like. In an illustrative embodiment, an oxidoreductase enzyme such as glucose oxidase in the analyte sensing layer 110 reacts with glucose to produce hydrogen peroxide, a compound which then modulates a current at an electrode. As this modulation of current depends on the concentration of hydrogen peroxide, and the concentration of hydrogen peroxide correlates to the concentration of glucose, the concentration of glucose can be determined by monitoring this modulation in the current. In a specific embodiment of the invention, the hydrogen peroxide is oxidized at a working electrode which is an anode (also termed herein the anodic working electrode), with the resulting current being proportional to the hydrogen peroxide concentration. Such modulations in the current caused by changing hydrogen peroxide concentrations can by monitored by any one of a variety of sensor detector apparatuses such as a universal sensor amperometric biosensor detector or one of the other variety of similar devices known in the art such as glucose monitoring devices produced by Medtronic Diabetes.

In embodiments of the invention, the analyte sensing layer 110 can be applied over portions of the conductive layer or over the entire region of the conductive layer. Typically, the analyte sensing layer 110 is disposed on the working electrode which can be the anode or the cathode. Optionally, the analyte sensing layer 110 is also disposed on a counter and/or reference electrode. Methods for generating a thin analyte sensing layer 110 include brushing the layer onto a substrate (e.g. the reactive surface of a platinum black electrode), as well as spin coating processes, dip and dry processes, low shear spraying processes, ink-jet printing processes, silk screen processes and the like. In certain embodiments of the invention, brushing is used to: (1) allow for a precise localization of the layer; and (2) push the layer deep into the architecture of the reactive surface of an electrode (e.g. platinum black produced by an electrodeposition process).

Typically, the analyte sensing layer 110 is coated and or disposed next to one or more additional layers. Optionally, the one or more additional layers includes a protein layer 116 disposed upon the analyte sensing layer 110. Typically, the protein layer 116 comprises a protein such as human serum albumin, bovine serum albumin or the like. Typically, the protein layer 116 comprises human serum albumin. In some embodiments of the invention, an additional layer includes an analyte modulating layer 112 that is disposed above the analyte sensing layer 110 to regulate analyte contact with the analyte sensing layer 110. For example, the analyte modulating membrane layer 112 can comprise a glucose limiting membrane, which regulates the amount of glucose that contacts an enzyme such as glucose oxidase that is present in the analyte sensing layer. Such glucose limiting membranes can be made from a wide variety of materials known to be suitable for such purposes, e.g., silicone compounds such as polydimethyl siloxanes, polyurethanes, polyurea cellulose acetates, Nafion, polyester sulfonic acids (e.g. Kodak AQ), hydrogels or any other suitable hydrophilic membranes known to those skilled in the art.

In typical embodiments of the invention, an adhesion promoter layer 114 is disposed between the analyte modulating layer 112 and the analyte sensing layer 110 as shown in FIG. 2A in order to facilitate their contact and/or adhesion. In a specific embodiment of the invention, an adhesion promoter layer 114 is disposed between the analyte modulating layer 112 and the protein layer 116 as shown in FIG. 2A in order to facilitate their contact and/or adhesion. The adhesion promoter layer 114 can be made from any one of a wide variety of materials known in the art to facilitate the bonding between such layers. Typically, the adhesion promoter layer 114 comprises a silane compound. In alternative embodiments, protein or like molecules in the analyte sensing layer 110 can be sufficiently crosslinked or otherwise prepared to allow the analyte modulating membrane layer 112 to be disposed in direct contact with the analyte sensing layer 110 in the absence of an adhesion promoter layer 114.

B. Typical Analyte Sensor Constituents Used in Embodiments of the Invention

The following disclosure provides examples of typical elements/constituents used in sensor embodiments of the invention. While these elements can be described as discreet units (e.g. layers), those of skill in the art understand that sensors can be designed to contain elements having a combination of some or all of the material properties and/or functions of the elements/constituents discussed below (e.g. an element that serves both as a supporting base constituent and/or a conductive constituent and/or a matrix for the analyte sensing constituent and which further functions as an electrode in the sensor). Those in the art understand that these thin film analyte sensors can be adapted for use in a number of sensor systems such as those described below.

Base Constituent

Sensors of the invention typically include a base constituent (see, e.g. element 102 in FIG. 2A). The term “base constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to the constituent in the apparatus that typically provides a supporting matrix for the plurality of constituents that are stacked on top of one another and comprise the functioning sensor. In one form, the base constituent comprises a thin film sheet of insulative (e.g. electrically insulative and/or water impermeable) material such as a sputtered metallic composition having the constellation of features disclosed herein that function to modulate immune response. This base constituent can be made of a wide variety of materials having desirable qualities such as the constellation of features disclosed herein as well as dielectric properties, water impermeability and hermeticity. Some materials include metallic, and/or ceramic and/or polymeric substrates or the like.

Conductive Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention typically include a conductive constituent disposed upon the base constituent that includes at least one electrode for contacting an analyte or its byproduct (e.g. oxygen and/or hydrogen peroxide) to be assayed (see, e.g. element 104 in FIG. 2A). The term “conductive constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to electrically conductive sensor elements such as a plurality of electrically conductive members disposed on the base layer in an array (e.g. so as to form a microarray electrode) and which are capable of measuring a detectable signal and conducting this to a detection apparatus. An illustrative example of this is a conductive constituent that forms a working electrode that can measure an increase or decrease in current in response to exposure to a stimuli such as the change in the concentration of an analyte or its byproduct as compared to a reference electrode that does not experience the change in the concentration of the analyte, a coreactant (e.g. oxygen) used when the analyte interacts with a composition (e.g. the enzyme glucose oxidase) present in analyte sensing constituent 110 or a reaction product of this interaction (e.g. hydrogen peroxide). Illustrative examples of such elements include electrodes which are capable of producing variable detectable signals in the presence of variable concentrations of molecules such as hydrogen peroxide or oxygen.

In addition to the working electrode, the analyte sensors of the invention typically include a reference electrode or a combined reference and counter electrode (also termed a quasi-reference electrode or a counter/reference electrode). If the sensor does not have a counter/reference electrode then it may include a separate counter electrode, which may be made from the same or different materials as the working electrode. Typical sensors of the present invention have one or more working electrodes and one or more counter, reference, and/or counter/reference electrodes. One embodiment of the sensor of the present invention has two, three or four or more working electrodes. These working electrodes in the sensor may be integrally connected or they may be kept separate. Optionally, the electrodes can be disposed on a single surface or side of the sensor structure. Alternatively, the electrodes can be disposed on a multiple surfaces or sides of the sensor structure (and can for example be connected by vias through the sensor material(s) to the surfaces on which the electrodes are disposed). In certain embodiments of the invention, the reactive surfaces of the electrodes are of different relative areas/sizes, for example a 1× reference electrode, a 2.6× working electrode and a 3.6× counter electrode.

Interference Rejection Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention optionally include an interference rejection constituent disposed between the surface of the electrode and the environment to be assayed. In particular, certain sensor embodiments rely on the oxidation and/or reduction of hydrogen peroxide generated by enzymatic reactions on the surface of a working electrode at a constant potential applied. Because amperometric detection based on direct oxidation of hydrogen peroxide requires a relatively high oxidation potential, sensors employing this detection scheme may suffer interference from oxidizable species that are present in biological fluids such as ascorbic acid, uric acid and acetaminophen. In this context, the term “interference rejection constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to a coating or membrane in the sensor that functions to inhibit spurious signals generated by such oxidizable species which interfere with the detection of the signal generated by the analyte to be sensed. Certain interference rejection constituents function via size exclusion (e.g. by excluding interfering species of a specific size). Examples of interference rejection constituents include one or more layers or coatings of compounds such as hydrophilic polyurethanes, cellulose acetate (including cellulose acetate incorporating agents such as poly(ethylene glycol), polyethersulfones, polytetra-fluoroethylenes, the perfluoronated ionomer Nafion™, polyphenylenediamine, epoxy and the like.

Analyte Sensing Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention include an analyte sensing constituent disposed on the electrodes of the sensor (see, e.g. element 110 in FIG. 2A). The term “analyte sensing constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to a constituent comprising a material that is capable of recognizing or reacting with an analyte whose presence is to be detected by the analyte sensor apparatus. Typically this material in the analyte sensing constituent produces a detectable signal after interacting with the analyte to be sensed, typically via the electrodes of the conductive constituent. In this regard, the analyte sensing constituent and the electrodes of the conductive constituent work in combination to produce the electrical signal that is read by an apparatus associated with the analyte sensor. Typically, the analyte sensing constituent comprises an oxidoreductase enzyme capable of reacting with and/or producing a molecule whose change in concentration can be measured by measuring the change in the current at an electrode of the conductive constituent (e.g. oxygen and/or hydrogen peroxide), for example the enzyme glucose oxidase. An enzyme capable of producing a molecule such as hydrogen peroxide can be disposed on the electrodes according to a number of processes known in the art. The analyte sensing constituent can coat all or a portion of the various electrodes of the sensor. In this context, the analyte sensing constituent may coat the electrodes to an equivalent degree. Alternatively, the analyte sensing constituent may coat different electrodes to different degrees, with for example the coated surface of the working electrode being larger than the coated surface of the counter and/or reference electrode.

Typical sensor embodiments of this element of the invention utilize an enzyme (e.g. glucose oxidase) that has been combined with a second protein (e.g. albumin) in a fixed ratio (e.g. one that is typically optimized for glucose oxidase stabilizing properties) and then applied on the surface of an electrode to form a thin enzyme constituent. In a typical embodiment, the analyte sensing constituent comprises a GOx and HSA mixture. In a typical embodiment of an analyte sensing constituent having GOx, the GOx reacts with glucose present in the sensing environment (e.g. the body of a mammal) and generates hydrogen peroxide.

As noted above, the enzyme and the second protein (e.g. an albumin) are typically treated to form a crosslinked matrix (e.g. by adding a cross-linking agent to the protein mixture). As is known in the art, crosslinking conditions may be manipulated to modulate factors such as the retained biological activity of the enzyme, its mechanical and/or operational stability. Illustrative crosslinking procedures are described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/335,506 and PCT publication WO 03/035891 which are incorporated herein by reference. For example, an amine cross-linking reagent, such as, but not limited to, glutaraldehyde, can be added to the protein mixture. The addition of a cross-linking reagent to the protein mixture creates a protein paste. The concentration of the cross-linking reagent to be added may vary according to the concentration of the protein mixture. While glutaraldehyde is an illustrative crosslinking reagent, other cross-linking reagents may also be used or may be used in place of glutaraldehyde. Other suitable cross-linkers also may be used, as will be evident to those skilled in the art.

As noted above, in some embodiments of the invention, the analyte sensing constituent includes an agent (e.g. glucose oxidase) capable of producing a signal (e.g. a change in oxygen and/or hydrogen peroxide concentrations) that can be sensed by the electrically conductive elements (e.g. electrodes which sense changes in oxygen and/or hydrogen peroxide concentrations). However, other useful analyte sensing constituents can be formed from any composition that is capable of producing a detectable signal that can be sensed by the electrically conductive elements after interacting with a target analyte whose presence is to be detected. In some embodiments, the composition comprises an enzyme that modulates hydrogen peroxide concentrations upon reaction with an analyte to be sensed. Alternatively, the composition comprises an enzyme that modulates oxygen concentrations upon reaction with an analyte to be sensed. In this context, a wide variety of enzymes that either use or produce hydrogen peroxide and/or oxygen in a reaction with a physiological analyte are known in the art and these enzymes can be readily incorporated into the analyte sensing constituent composition. A variety of other enzymes known in the art can produce and/or utilize compounds whose modulation can be detected by electrically conductive elements such as the electrodes that are incorporated into the sensor designs described herein. Such enzymes include for example, enzymes specifically described in Table 1, pages 15-29 and/or Table 18, pages 111-112 of Protein Immobilization: Fundamentals and Applications (Bioprocess Technology, Vol 14) by Richard F. Taylor (Editor) Publisher: Marcel Dekker; Jan. 7, 1991) the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Protein Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention optionally include a protein constituent disposed between the analyte sensing constituent and the analyte modulating constituent (see, e.g. element 116 in FIG. 2A). The term “protein constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to constituent containing a carrier protein or the like that is selected for compatibility with the analyte sensing constituent and/or the analyte modulating constituent. In typical embodiments, the protein constituent comprises an albumin such as human serum albumin. The HSA concentration may vary between about 0.5%-30% (w/v). Typically the HSA concentration is about 1-10% w/v, and most typically is about 5% w/v. In alternative embodiments of the invention, collagen or BSA or other structural proteins used in these contexts can be used instead of or in addition to HSA. This constituent is typically crosslinked on the analyte sensing constituent according to art accepted protocols.

Adhesion Promoting Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention can include one or more adhesion promoting (AP) constituents (see, e.g. element 114 in FIG. 2A). The term “adhesion promoting constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to a constituent that includes materials selected for their ability to promote adhesion between adjoining constituents in the sensor. Typically, the adhesion promoting constituent is disposed between the analyte sensing constituent and the analyte modulating constituent. Typically, the adhesion promoting constituent is disposed between the optional protein constituent and the analyte modulating constituent. The adhesion promoter constituent can be made from any one of a wide variety of materials known in the art to facilitate the bonding between such constituents and can be applied by any one of a wide variety of methods known in the art. Typically, the adhesion promoter constituent comprises a silane compound such as γ-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane.

High-Density Amine Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention can include one or more high-density amine constituent layers (see, e.g. element 500 in FIG. 2B) that provide the sensors with a number of beneficial functions. Such layers can optimize sensor function, for example by acting as an adhesion promoting constituent for layers adjacent to the HDA layer, by decreasing fluctuations that can occur in glucose oxidase based sensors in the presence of fluctuating concentration of oxygen, by improving sensor initialization profiles and the like. The term “adhesion promoting constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to a constituent that includes materials selected for their ability to promote adhesion between adjoining constituents in the sensor. Typically, the high-density amine adhesion promoting constituent is disposed between and in direct contact with the analyte sensing constituent and the analyte modulating constituent. In typical embodiments, the high-density amine layer 500 comprises poly-1-lysine having molecular weights between 30 KDa and 300 KDa (e.g. between 150 KDa and 300 KDa). The concentrations of poly-1-lysine in such high-density amine layers 500 is typically from 0.1 weight-to-weight percent to 0.5 weight-to-weight percent and the high-density amine layer 500 is from 0.1 to 0.4 microns thick. In embodiments where the analyte sensing layer comprises glucose oxidase so that the analyte sensor senses glucose, and the high-density amine layer 500 functions to decrease sensor signal changes that result from fluctuating levels of oxygen (O₂).

Analyte Modulating Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention include an analyte modulating constituent disposed on the sensor (see, e.g. element 112 in FIG. 2A). The term “analyte modulating constituent” is used herein according to art accepted terminology and refers to a constituent that typically forms a membrane on the sensor that operates to modulate the diffusion of one or more analytes, such as glucose, through the constituent. In certain embodiments of the invention, the analyte modulating constituent is an analyte-limiting membrane which operates to prevent or restrict the diffusion of one or more analytes, such as glucose, through the constituents. In other embodiments of the invention, the analyte-modulating constituent operates to facilitate the diffusion of one or more analytes, through the constituents. Optionally such analyte modulating constituents can be formed to prevent or restrict the diffusion of one type of molecule through the constituent (e.g. glucose), while at the same time allowing or even facilitating the diffusion of other types of molecules through the constituent (e.g. O₂).

With respect to glucose sensors, in known enzyme electrodes, glucose and oxygen from blood, as well as some interferants, such as ascorbic acid and uric acid, diffuse through a primary membrane of the sensor. As the glucose, oxygen and interferants reach the analyte sensing constituent, an enzyme, such as glucose oxidase, catalyzes the conversion of glucose to hydrogen peroxide and gluconolactone. The hydrogen peroxide may diffuse back through the analyte modulating constituent, or it may diffuse to an electrode where it can be reacted to form oxygen and a proton to produce a current that is proportional to the glucose concentration. The analyte modulating sensor membrane assembly serves several functions, including selectively allowing the passage of glucose therethrough (see, e.g. U.S. Patent Application No. 2011-0152654).

Cover Constituent

The electrochemical sensors of the invention include one or more cover constituents which are typically electrically insulating protective constituents (see, e.g. element 106 in FIG. 2A). Typically, such cover constituents can be in the form of a coating, sheath or tube and are disposed on at least a portion of the analyte modulating constituent. Typically such features comprise a sputtered metallic composition comprising a surface having the constellation of features disclosed herein that function to modulate immune response. Acceptable polymer coatings for use as the insulating protective cover constituent can include, but are not limited to, non-toxic biocompatible polymers such as silicone compounds, polyimides, biocompatible solder masks, epoxy acrylate copolymers, or the like. Further, these coatings can be photo-imageable to facilitate photolithographic forming of apertures through to the conductive constituent. A typical cover constituent comprises spun on silicone. As is known in the art, this constituent can be a commercially available RTV (room temperature vulcanized) silicone composition. A typical chemistry in this context is polydimethyl siloxane (acetoxy based).

C. Typical Analyte Sensor System Embodiments of the Invention

Embodiments of the sensor elements and sensors can be operatively coupled to a variety of other system elements typically used with analyte sensors (e.g. structural elements such as piercing members, insertion sets and the like as well as electronic components such as processors, monitors, medication infusion pumps and the like), for example to adapt them for use in various contexts (e.g. implantation within a mammal). One embodiment of the invention includes a method of monitoring a physiological characteristic of a user using an embodiment of the invention that includes an input element capable of receiving a signal from a sensor that is based on a sensed physiological characteristic value of the user, and a processor for analyzing the received signal. In typical embodiments of the invention, the processor determines a dynamic behavior of the physiological characteristic value and provides an observable indicator based upon the dynamic behavior of the physiological characteristic value so determined. In some embodiments, the physiological characteristic value is a measure of the concentration of blood glucose in the user. In other embodiments, the process of analyzing the received signal and determining a dynamic behavior includes repeatedly measuring the physiological characteristic value to obtain a series of physiological characteristic values in order to, for example, incorporate comparative redundancies into a sensor apparatus in a manner designed to provide confirmatory information on sensor function, analyte concentration measurements, the presence of interferences and the like.

FIG. 11 in U.S. Patent Publication 2014/0163346 shows a schematic of a potentiostat that may be used to measure current in embodiments of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 11 in U.S. Patent Publication 2014/0163346, a potentiostat 300 may include an op amp 310 that is connected in an electrical circuit so as to have two inputs: Vset and Vmeasured. As shown, Vmeasured is the measured value of the voltage between a reference electrode and a working electrode. Vset, on the other hand, is the optimally desired voltage across the working and reference electrodes. The current between the counter and reference electrode is measured, creating a current measurement (isig) that is output from the potentiostat.

Embodiments of the invention include devices which process display data from measurements of a sensed physiological characteristic (e.g. blood glucose concentrations) in a manner and format tailored to allow a user of the device to easily monitor and, if necessary, modulate the physiological status of that characteristic (e.g. modulation of blood glucose concentrations via insulin administration). An illustrative embodiment of the invention is a device comprising a sensor input capable of receiving a signal from a sensor, the signal being based on a sensed physiological characteristic value of a user; a memory for storing a plurality of measurements of the sensed physiological characteristic value of the user from the received signal from the sensor; and a display for presenting a text and/or graphical representation of the plurality of measurements of the sensed physiological characteristic value (e.g. text, a line graph or the like, a bar graph or the like, a grid pattern or the like or a combination thereof). Typically, the graphical representation displays real time measurements of the sensed physiological characteristic value. Such devices can be used in a variety of contexts, for example in combination with other medical apparatuses. In some embodiments of the invention, the device is used in combination with at least one other medical device (e.g. a glucose sensor).

An illustrative system embodiment consists of a glucose sensor, a transmitter and pump receiver and a glucose meter. In this system, radio signals from the transmitter can be sent to the pump receiver every 5 minutes to provide providing real-time sensor glucose (SG) values. Values/graphs are displayed on a monitor of the pump receiver so that a user can self monitor blood glucose and deliver insulin using their own insulin pump. Typically, an embodiment of device disclosed herein communicates with a second medical device via a wired or wireless connection. Wireless communication can include for example the reception of emitted radiation signals as occurs with the transmission of signals via RF telemetry, infrared transmissions, optical transmission, sonic and ultrasonic transmissions and the like. Optionally, the device is an integral part of a medication infusion pump (e.g. an insulin pump). Typically, in such devices, the physiological characteristic values include a plurality of measurements of blood glucose.

FIG. 3 provides a perspective view of one generalized embodiment of subcutaneous sensor insertion system and a block diagram of a sensor electronics device according to one illustrative embodiment of the invention. Additional elements typically used with such sensor system embodiments are disclosed for example in U.S. Patent Application No. 20070163894, the contents of which are incorporated by reference. FIG. 3 provides a perspective view of a telemetered characteristic monitor system 1, including a subcutaneous sensor set 10 provided for subcutaneous placement of an active portion of a flexible sensor 12, or the like, at a selected site in the body of a user. The subcutaneous or percutaneous portion of the sensor set 10 includes a hollow, slotted insertion needle 14 having a sharpened tip 44, and a cannula 16. Inside the cannula 16 is a sensing portion 18 of the sensor 12 to expose one or more sensor electrodes 20 to the user's bodily fluids through a window 22 formed in the cannula 16. The sensing portion 18 is joined to a connection portion 24 that terminates in conductive contact pads, or the like, which are also exposed through one of the insulative layers. The connection portion 24 and the contact pads are generally adapted for a direct wired electrical connection to a suitable monitor 200 coupled to a display 214 for monitoring a user's condition in response to signals derived from the sensor electrodes 20. The connection portion 24 may be conveniently connected electrically to the monitor 200 or a characteristic monitor transmitter 100 by a connector block 28 (or the like).

As shown in FIG. 3 , in accordance with embodiments of the present invention, subcutaneous sensor set 10 may be configured or formed to work with either a wired or a wireless characteristic monitor system. The proximal part of the sensor 12 is mounted in a mounting base 30 adapted for placement onto the skin of a user. The mounting base 30 can be a pad having an underside surface coated with a suitable pressure sensitive adhesive layer 32, with a peel-off paper strip 34 normally provided to cover and protect the adhesive layer 32, until the sensor set 10 is ready for use. The mounting base 30 includes upper and lower layers 36 and 38, with the connection portion 24 of the flexible sensor 12 being sandwiched between the layers 36 and 38. The connection portion 24 has a forward section joined to the active sensing portion 18 of the sensor 12, which is folded angularly to extend downwardly through a bore 40 formed in the lower base layer 38. Optionally, the adhesive layer 32 (or another portion of the apparatus in contact with in vivo tissue) includes an anti-inflammatory agent to reduce an inflammatory response and/or anti-bacterial agent to reduce the chance of infection. The insertion needle 14 is adapted for slide-fit reception through a needle port 42 formed in the upper base layer 36 and through the lower bore 40 in the lower base layer 38. After insertion, the insertion needle 14 is withdrawn to leave the cannula 16 with the sensing portion 18 and the sensor electrodes 20 in place at the selected insertion site. In this embodiment, the telemetered characteristic monitor transmitter 100 is coupled to a sensor set 10 by a cable 102 through a connector 104 that is electrically coupled to the connector block 28 of the connector portion 24 of the sensor set 10.

In the embodiment shown in FIG. 3 , the telemetered characteristic monitor 100 includes a housing 106 that supports a printed circuit board 108, batteries 110, antenna 112, and the cable 102 with the connector 104. In some embodiments, the housing 106 is formed from an upper case 114 and a lower case 116 that are sealed with an ultrasonic weld to form a waterproof (or resistant) seal to permit cleaning by immersion (or swabbing) with water, cleaners, alcohol or the like. In some embodiments, the upper and lower case 114 and 116 are formed from a medical grade plastic. However, in alternative embodiments, the upper case 114 and lower case 116 may be connected together by other methods, such as snap fits, sealing rings, RTV (silicone sealant) and bonded together, or the like, or formed from other materials, such as metal, composites, ceramics, or the like. In other embodiments, the separate case can be eliminated and the assembly is simply potted in epoxy or other moldable materials that is compatible with the electronics and reasonably moisture resistant. As shown, the lower case 116 may have an underside surface coated with a suitable pressure sensitive adhesive layer 118, with a peel-off paper strip 120 normally provided to cover and protect the adhesive layer 118, until the sensor set telemetered characteristic monitor transmitter 100 is ready for use.

In the illustrative embodiment shown in FIG. 3 , the subcutaneous sensor set 10 facilitates accurate placement of a flexible thin film electrochemical sensor 12 of the type used for monitoring specific blood parameters representative of a user's condition. The sensor 12 monitors glucose levels in the body, and may be used in conjunction with automated or semi-automated medication infusion pumps of the external or implantable type as described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,562,751; 4,678,408; 4,685,903 or 4,573,994, to control delivery of insulin to a diabetic patient.

In the illustrative embodiment shown in FIG. 3 , the sensor electrodes 10 may be used in a variety of sensing applications and may be configured in a variety of ways. For example, the sensor electrodes 10 may be used in physiological parameter sensing applications in which some type of biomolecule is used as a catalytic agent. For example, the sensor electrodes 10 may be used in a glucose and oxygen sensor having a glucose oxidase enzyme catalyzing a reaction with the sensor electrodes 20. The sensor electrodes 10, along with a biomolecule or some other catalytic agent, may be placed in a human body in a vascular or non-vascular environment. For example, the sensor electrodes 20 and biomolecule may be placed in a vein and be subjected to a blood stream, or may be placed in a subcutaneous or peritoneal region of the human body.

In the embodiment of the invention shown in FIG. 3 , the monitor of sensor signals 200 may also be referred to as a sensor electronics device 200. The monitor 200 may include a power source, a sensor interface, processing electronics (i.e. a processor), and data formatting electronics. The monitor 200 may be coupled to the sensor set 10 by a cable 102 through a connector that is electrically coupled to the connector block 28 of the connection portion 24. In an alternative embodiment, the cable may be omitted. In this embodiment of the invention, the monitor 200 may include an appropriate connector for direct connection to the connection portion 104 of the sensor set 10. The sensor set 10 may be modified to have the connector portion 104 positioned at a different location, e.g., on top of the sensor set to facilitate placement of the monitor 200 over the sensor set.

While the analyte sensor and sensor systems disclosed herein are typically designed to be implantable within the body of a mammal, the inventions disclosed herein are not limited to any particular environment and can instead be used in a wide variety of contexts, for example for the analysis of most in vivo and in vitro liquid samples including biological fluids such as interstitial fluids, whole-blood, lymph, plasma, serum, saliva, urine, stool, perspiration, mucus, tears, cerebrospinal fluid, nasal secretion, cervical or vaginal secretion, semen, pleural fluid, amniotic fluid, peritoneal fluid, middle ear fluid, joint fluid, gastric aspirate or the like. In addition, solid or desiccated samples may be dissolved in an appropriate solvent to provide a liquid mixture suitable for analysis.

Typical Materials and Methods for Studies with RAW 264.7 Macrophages

Protocols for such studies follow conventional methodologies such as those disclosed in Repetto et al., NATURE PROTOCOLS, VOL. 3 NO. 7 (2008) pp 1125-1131; Damanik et al., Sci Rep. 2014 Sep. 19;4:6325. doi: 10.1038/srep063 and Chen et al., Biomaterials. 2010 May; 31(13): 3479-3491. doi:10.1016/j.

Typical RAW 264.7 macrophages, associated cell culture medium and supplies/equipment include:

-   -   12-well plates.     -   Skin adhesives or stainless steel rings.     -   Griess Assays.     -   Promega kits: (search         “promega.com/products/cell-health-assays/oxidative-stress-assays/griess-reagent-system/?catNum=G2930”).     -   Alternately, artisans can use this modified reagent from Sigma         and dissolved in water to make the lx reagent (the solution is         stable for 3 months protected by light) Search         “sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/product/sigma/g4410?lang=en&region=US”.     -   Neutral Red Assays (or CyQuant).     -   Live dead assays.     -   TNF-alpha & MIP-1 ELISA kits.     -   LPS.

In typical protocols, each sample is packaged & sterilized individually and the label can be found on the package label (circled in blue). To indicate which side of the sample disk has the material of interest exposed, a “4” can be written on the backside of the sample (the side that we are not interested in). When placing samples into the wells, artisans can use a sterilized tweezer to pick up the disk, and place the side that has the “4” facing the bottom of the well. Artisans can place about 200 uL of media into the well first prior to laying down the sample if using a stainless steel ring, or dab some skin adhesive prior to laying down the disks.

On day 1, RAW macrophage cells can be plated at a concentration of 125,000 cells/well on plastic or sample disks in 12 well plates. On day 2, for samples receiving LPS treatment, LPS can be added at 10 ng/ml per well on designated wells. On day 3, the media from each well can be harvested and aliquoted into 2 different microcentrifuge tubes (one for ELISA analysis and one for Griess assay). Designated samples can then be imaged by fluorescent microscopy (live/dead assay). The rest of the samples can undergo Neutral red assay to normalize ELISA & Griess assay results. Neutral red (100 ug/mL dissolved in SFM) can be added to the cells and incubated for 3 hours, and washed in PBS. 1 mL of extracellular medium (EtOH/AcCOOH, 50%/1%) can then be added and the plates are gently shaken for 10 mins until all neutral red is in solution. Samples can then be transferred (in triplicate wells) to a 96 well plated and absorbance read at 540 nm.

Samples tested according to such protocols include polyimide controls, trillium soak coat, thick gold layers, thin gold layers, smooth gold layers, polyimide microwells, and pHEMA.

Data from macrophage studies on embodiments of the invention is shown in FIGS. 1A-1G. FIG. 1A shows a cartoon schematic of a macrophage coming into contact with a nano structured material disclosed herein (top left panel), a photograph of a nano structured material disclosed herein (top right panel), and a graph of data obtained with pigs comparing conventional glucose sensor longevity with the (improved) longevity of glucose sensors having a nano structured material disclosed herein (bottom panel). FIG. 1B shows photographs of macrophage adhesion to plastic layers, polyimide layers, thin gold layers and thick gold layers in the absence of LPS (top panels) and the presence of LPS (bottom panels). FIG. 1C shows graphed data from a neutral red assay study of macrophage adhesion on various surfaces. This data shows that RAW264.7 macrophage adhesion on textured gold surfaces trends lower as compared to RAW264.7 macrophage adhesion on polyimide and plastic materials, that treating these macrophages with LPS activates/stimulates macrophages towards a pro-inflammatory phenotype, more akin to the inflammatory environment surrounding sensor insertion/foreign body response, and that there are no major differences in adhered macrophages post-LPS treatment. FIG. 1D shows graphed data from a study of the production of the pro-inflammatory marker MIP-1α in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the absence of LPS. FIG. 1E shows graphed data from a study of the production of the pro-inflammatory marker MCP-1 in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the absence of LPS. FIG. 1F shows graphed data from a study of the production of the pro-inflammatory marker TNF-α in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the absence of LPS (and that TNF-α production is significantly lower in increased gold texturing (Gold Thick) as compared to polyimide). FIG. 1G shows graphed data from a study of the evaluation of activated macrophages via the production of the pro-inflammatory marker TNF-α in macrophages adhered to various surfaces in the presence of LPS (and that MIP-1α and MCP-1 levels did not increase upon LPS activation, and therefore results were comparable to results without activation, and also that LPS activated macrophages adhered to textured gold produce less TNF-α than LPS activated macrophages adhered polyimide).

It is to be understood that this invention is not limited to the particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims. In the description of the preferred embodiment, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part hereof, and in which is shown by way of illustration a specific embodiment in which the invention may be practiced. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present invention. 

1. A method of making an electrochemical analyte sensor comprising: providing a base layer; forming a conductive layer over the base layer, wherein the conductive layer includes a working electrode; forming an analyte sensing layer over the conductive layer, wherein the analyte sensing layer includes a composition that can alter the electrical current at the working electrode in the conductive layer in the presence of an analyte; forming an analyte modulating layer over the analyte sensing layer; and forming a surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment, the surface comprising a sputtered metallic composition having the following characteristics: the sputtered metallic composition is deposited on a surface of the electrochemical analyte sensor adapted to contact an in vivo environment using physical vapor deposition (PVD) process; and the sputtered metallic composition comprises pillars; so that the electrochemical analyte sensor is made.
 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: placing a substrate for the sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment in a physical vapor deposition (PVD) chamber; setting a pressure of a gas in the chamber; and depositing the sputtered metallic composition on the substrate using physical vapor deposition at the pressure.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the sputtered metallic composition comprises as at least one structured layer selected from a patterned layer, a roughened layer, a non-uniform layer, and a layer including voids.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the sputtered metallic composition comprises gold.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein: the sputtered metallic composition comprises a second layer on a first layer, the first layer between the second layer; the first layer is deposited at the pressure comprising a first pressure, and the second layer is deposited at the pressure comprising a second pressure lower than the first pressure.
 6. The method of claim 2, wherein the physical vapor deposition at a pressure in a range of 2-250 millitorr.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the sputtered metallic composition is formed to comprise nanostructures with dimensions in a range from 1 nm-1000 nm and/or max peak/valley heights in a range of 1 nm-1000 nm.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the physical vapor deposition comprises: ionizing the gas so as to form ionized gas particles; and accelerating the ionized gas particles onto a target comprising the sputtered metallic composition using an electric and/or magnetic field having a power in a range of 10 watts to 100 kilowatts.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the sputtered metallic composition is formed so that when exposed to the surface comprising the sputtered metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophages are influenced in a manner that inhibits their differentiation into an inflammatory (M1) phenotype, and/or influenced in a manner that facilitates their differentiation into an anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotype.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein when exposed to the surface comprising the sputtered metallic composition, RAW264.7 macrophages produce less TNF-α than an amount of TNF-α produced in response to a control electrochemical analyte sensor that is identical to said electrochemical analyte sensor except that said control electrochemical analyte sensor comprises a sensor surface adapted to contact an in vivo environment formed from a polyimide composition. 